Glass Ceilings, Glass Walls, and Glass Cliffs: Gender Bias in the Leadership of International Organizations

Executive leaders of international organizations play a crucial role in managing the contemporary international order and shaping political outcomes. Yet, there has been no systematic accounting of their individual characteristics. Based on an original dataset of the personal traits of 2,030 highest-ranking executives of 400 intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) from 1966 to 2019, we examine how gender bias affects appointments to leadership positions. Drawing on literatures on glass ceilings, glass walls, and glass cliffs, we empirically assess: 1. the degree to which leadership appointments are biased against women across institutions, nominating countries, and time periods; 2. whether women are sidelined into leadership positions in less prominent institutions and “feminine” issue areas; and 3. the tendency for women to be elevated into leadership positions during challenging periods, such as during crises and scandals. The data and findings open new avenues for research on gender-based discrimination, the interaction of domestic and international political representation, and the impact of leadership characteristics on policy outcomes.